Author: Guojun Lu
ISBN: 0-89006-994-4
Number of pages: 394
Ordering information can be obtained from the publisher's www page.
Table of Contents:
Preface
xi
Chapter 1 Introduction
1
1.1 What are Multimedia Computing and
Communications
1
1.1.1 Definitions
1
1.1.2 Why Digital
Representations?
2
1.2 Motivations and Applications of Using
Multimedia Data in Computer
Systems
4
1.2.1 Video/Movie on
Demand
5
1.2.2 Information on Demand
5
1.2.3 Education
6
1.2.4 Telemedicine
6
1.2.5 Videophone and
Videoconference
7
1.2.6 Cooperative Work
7
1.3 Classes of Multimedia Systems
7
1.4 Challenges of Multimedia Computing and
Communications
8
1.5 Scope and Approach of This Book
9
1.6 Organization of the Following Chapters
9
Problems
11
References
11
Chapter 2 Characteristics and Requirements of Multimedia Data
13
2.1 Introduction
13
2.2 Digital Representation of Audio
14
2.2.1 Basic
Characteristics of Audio Signal
14
2.2.2 Digital
Representation of Audio
15
2.3 Analog Video Systems
20
2.3.1 Capture and
Reproduction of Images and Video
20
2.3.2 Frame Rates
21
2.3.3 Aspect Ratio
23
2.3.4 Resolution
23
2.3.5 Color
Video/Television
24
2.3.6 Existing Color
Television Standards
25
2.3.7 Viewing Ratio
25
2.3.8 High-Definition
Television Systems
26
2.3.9 Bandwidth Requirements
of Analog Video
27
2.3.10 Analog Video
Storage and Transmission
27
2.4 Representation of Digital Images and Video
28
2.4.1 A Generic Digital
Video System
28
2.4.2 Analog to Digital
Conversion Process
29
2.4.3 Bitmap
Representation of Digital Image and Video
33
2.4.4 Comparison of
Analog and Digital Video Systems
34
2.4.5 Other Sources of
Digital Images and Video
35
2.5 Color Specification
35
2.5.1 Color Properties
36
2.5.2 Color
Specification Systems
36
2.5.3 Different Color
Representations
42
2.5.4 Need for a Common
Image and Video Exchange Format
47
2.5.5 Human Perception
Properties and Image Compression
Performance
48
2.6 Major Characteristics and Requirements of
Multimedia Information
48
2.6.1 Storage and
Bandwidth Requirements
49
2.6.2 Delay and Delay
Jitter Requirements
50
2.6.3 Semantic
Structure of Multimedia Information
51
2.6.4 Temporal and
Spatial Relationships Among Related Media
51
2.6.5 Error and Loss
Tolerance in Multimedia Data
52
2.7 Quality of Service
52
2.8 Summary
53
Problems
54
Further Reading
57
References
57
Chapter 3 Digital Audio, Image and Video Compression Principles, Techniques
and Standards
59
3.1 Introduction
59
3.2 Compression Principles
60
3.2.1 Data Redundancy
60
3.2.2 Human Perception
Properties
61
3.2.3 Classifications
of Compression Techniques
61
3.2.4 Measurement of
Compression Performance
62
3.3 Lossless Compression Techniques
63
3.3.1 Entropy Coding
63
3.3.2 Run-Length Coding
66
3.3.3 Lempel-Ziv-Welch
(LZW) Coding
67
3.4 Digital Audio Compression Techniques
68
3.4.1 Non-linear
Quantization
68
3.4.2 Predictive Coding
69
3.4.3 Compression
Technique Making Use of Masking Property:
MPEG-Audio
70
3.5 Digital Image and Video Compression
Techniques
72
3.5.1 Spatial and
Temporal Subsampling Coding
73
3.5.2 Predictive Coding
73
3.5.3 Conditional
Replenishment
74
3.5.4 Motion Estimation
and Compensation
74
3.5.5 Transform Coding
74
3.5.6 Hybrid Coding
78
3.5.7 Vector
Quantization
78
3.5.8 Fractal Image
Coding
80
3.5.9 Model- and
Knowledge-Based Coding
81
3.5.10 Subband Coding
81
3.5.11
Contour-Texture-Oriented Techniques
82
3.5.12 Other Techniques
82
3.5.13 Summary of
Compression Techniques
82
3.6 Multimedia Compression Standards
84
3.6.1 The JPEG Still
Image Compression Standard
84
3.6.2 H.261
91
3.6.3 MPEG
92
3.6.3.1
MPEG-1
94
3.6.3.2
MPEG-2
102
3.6.3.3
MPEG-4
106
3.6.4 ITU-T H.324 and
H.263
106
3.6.5 JBIG
107
3.7 Summary
108
Problems
110
Further Reading
113
References
113
Chapter 4 End-to-End Quality of Service Guarantee for Digital Audio and
Video Communication
117
4.1 Introduction
117
4.2 Need for End-to-end Performance Guarantee
118
4.2.1 Jitter Removal
118
4.2.2 Bandwidth
Requirement
120
4.2.3 Delay and Delay
Jitter Requirements
122
4.2.4 Summary
122
4.3 Differences between
Multimedia Systems and Critical Real-time
Systems
123
4.4 Components
(Subsystems) of Multimedia Communications Systems
124
4.4.1 Subsystems in
Conversational Applications
125
4.4.2 Subsystems in
Retrieval Applications
126
4.5 QOS Management
127
4.5.1 Definition
127
4.5.2 General QOS
Framework
128
4.5.3 QOS Specification
128
4.5.4 QOS Negotiation
and Renegotiation
131
4.5.5 Different Levels
of Guarantee
132
4.5.6 Providing QOS
Guarantees
133
4.5.7 An Example of QOS
Handling
133
4.6 Advance Service Reservation
134
4.7 Design Goals of Multimedia Systems
135
4.8 Summary
136
Problems
136
References
138
Chapter 5 Network Support for Multimedia Communications
141
5.1 Introduction
141
5.2 Network Characteristics Suitable for
Multimedia Communications
142
5.2.1 Network Speed or
Bandwidth
142
5.2.2 Efficient Sharing
of Network Resources 143
5.2.3 Performance
Guarantees 145
5.2.4 Network
Scalability 146
5.2.5 Multicasting
Capability 146
5.2.6 Networks Suitable for
Multimedia Communications 148
5.3 Some Important Concepts of Data
Communications 150
5.3.1 Asynchronous and
Synchronous Data Transmission 150
5.3.2 Asynchronous and
Synchronous Multiplexing 150
5.3.3 Isochronous
Communications 151
5.3.4 Asynchronous,
Synchronous and Isochronous Services
in FDDI
151
5.3.5 Intramedia and
Intermedia Synchronization 152
5.4 Fibre Distributed Data Interface
152
5.4.1 An Overview of
FDDI Operation 152
5.4.2 FDDI-II
153
5.4.3 Suitability of
FDDI and FDDI-II for Multimedia
Communications
154
5.5 Distributed Queue Dual Bus
156
5.6 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
157
5.6.1 What Is ATM?
157
5.6.2 How Is Cell Size
Decided? 159
5.6.3 B-ISDN Protocol
Reference Model 161
5.6.4 ATM Cell Formats
163
5.6.4.1 ATM Cell Header
at the NNI 163
5.6.4.2 Cell Header At
the UNI 165
5.6.5
Call Setup Procedure and Cell Routing
166
5.6.5.1 Call Setup
Procedure 166
5.6.5.2 Cell Routing
168
5.6.6 ATM Adaptation layers
169
5.6.7 Why Is ATM
Suitable for Multimedia Communications? 170
5.6.8 Current Status
172
5.7 Multimedia Networks and Performance
Guarantee 172
5.8 Traffic Characterization
174
5.8.1 Multiparameter
Characterizations 174
5.8.2 Traffic-Shaping
Schemes 175
5.8.3 Traffic Reshaping
178
5.9 Admission Control, QOS Negotioation, and
Traffic Policing 179
5.9.1 Admission Control
179
5.9.2 Traffic Policing
180
5.10 Queue-Scheduling Disciplines
181
5.10.1 Virtual Clock
181
5.10.2 Weighted Fair
Queuing 182
5.10.3 Delay
Earliest-Due-Date 182
5.10.4 Jitter
Earliest-Due-Date 183
5.10.5 Stop-and-Go
183
5.10.6 Priority Schemes
and Graceful Degradation 183
5.11 Summary
184
Problems
184
Further Reading
187
References
187
Chapter 6 Transport Protocol Support for Multimedia Communications
189
6.1 Introduction
189
6.2 Requirements of Multimedia Transport
Protocols 190
6.2.1 High Throughput
190
6.2.2 Multicast
Capability 190
6.2.3 QOS Specification
and Guarantee 191
6.3 Why Traditional Transport Protocols Are Not
Suitable for
Multimedia Communications
191
6.3.1 Data Copying
192
6.3.2 Layered
Multiplexing 192
6.3.4 Flow Control
192
6.3.5 Error Control
193
6.3.6 Positioning and
Handling of Control Information 194
6.3.7 Lack of QOS
Support 194
6.4 The Xpress Transfer Protocol
195
6.4.1 Major Functional
Features 195
6.4.2 Performance
Improvement Features 197
6.4.3 Suitability for
Multimedia Communications 198
6.5 Resource Reservation Protocols
198
6.5.1 ST-II
199
6.5.2 RSVP
202
6.5.3 Comparison of
ST-II and RSVP 203
6.6 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
204
6.6.1 RTP Data
Transmission 205
6.6.2 RTP Control
Functionality 206
6.6.3 Comments
206
6.7 Heidelberg Transport Protocol
207
6.8 Tenet Real-Time Protocol Suite
208
6.8.1 RCAP and
Real-Time Channel 209
6.8.2 RTIP
210
6.8.3 RMTP
211
6.8.4 CMTP
211
6.8.5 RTCMP
212
6.8.6 Tenet Suite 2
212
6.8.7 Comments
212
6.9 Summary
212
Problems
213
References
215
Chapter 7 End-System Support for Distributed Multimedia Applications
217
7.1 Introduction
217
7.2 Multimedia End-System Requirements
219
7.2.1 Hardware
Architecture Requirements 219
7.2.2 Multimedia
Operating System Requirements 219
7.2.3 Limitations of
Dedicated Real-Time Systems 220
7.3 Basic Organization of End Systems
220
7.4 Bus Limitations
222
7.5 Dedicated Multimedia Network Interface
Approach 223
7.5.1 Pandora’s
Box 223
7.5.2 Multimedia
Network Interface of Lancaster University 224
7.6 Network- and Channel-Based Multimedia End
System 225
7.6.1 Architecture
Based on Desk Area Network 225
7.6.2 Micronet
227
7.6.3 Minicell-Based
Networked Multimedia Workstations 228
7.6.4 Interconnection
Based on Fiber Channel 229
7.7 Design Issues of Multimedia Operating
System 230
7.8 Conventional Time-Sharing Operating Systems
and Incorporation
of Real-Time Features
231
7.9 Solutions to Data-Copying Problem
233
7.9.1 Data-Copying
Problem 233
7.9.2 Two Data Movement
Methods 235
7.9.3 Single-Copy and
Zero-Copy Architecture 235
7.10 Solutions To Reduce Context And Domain
Switch Overhead 235
7.11 QOS Support
236
7.11.1 QOS
Specification 237
7.11.2 Admission
Control 238
7.11.3 Resource
Reservation and Policing 238
7.11.4 Process
Scheduling Disciplines 239
7.11.5 QOS Graceful
Degradation and Media Scaling 241
7.12 Experimental Multimedia Operating Systems
241
7.12.1 YARTOS
241
7.12.2 Hyden’s
Work 242
7.12.3 Lancaster SUMO
Project 243
7.12.4 Real-Time Mach
244
7.13 Remaining Issues for End-System Support
245
7.14 Summary
246
Problems
246
References
248
Chapter 8 Multimedia Servers
251
8.1 Introduction
251
8.2 Multimedia Server Requirements
252
8.3 Storage Devices
253
8.3.1 Storage Capacity
and Transfer Bandwidth Requirements 253
8.3.2 Comparison of
Different Types of Storage Devices 254
8.3.3 Disk Arrays and
RAID 255
8.3.4 Storage
Hierarchies 257
8.4 Data Placement on Disks
258
8.4.1 Contiguous Data
Placement 259
8.4.2 Scattered Data
Placement 260
8.4.3 Log-Structured
Data Placement 260
8.4.4 Data Placement in
Disk Arrays 261
8.5 Disk Scheduling and Admission Control
262
8.5.1 Traditional Disk
Scheduling Algorithms 262
8.5.2 Earliest Deadline
First 263
8.5.3 Scan-Earliest
Deadline First 263
8.5.4 Round-Robin
264
8.5.5 Group Sweeping
Scheduling 265
8.6 Provision of User Interaction
265
8.6.1 Pause and Resume
266
8.6.2 Fast Forward and
Backward 267
8.6.3 QOS Issue Related
to User Interactions 268
8.7 Server Configuration and Network Connection
268
8.8 Other Issues
270
8.9 Summary
270
Problems
271
References
272
Chapter 9 Networked Multimedia Synchronization: Requirements and
Mechanisms
275
9.1 Introduction
275
9.2 Synchronization Specification
277
9.2.1 Scripts
278
9.2.2 Time-Line-Based
Temporal Specification 278
9.2.3 Petri Nets
279
9.2.4 Standardization
279
9.3 Synchronization Requirements
280
9.3.1 Multimedia
Application Scenarios 280
9.3.2 Required
Synchronization Accuracy 281
9.3.3 Analysis of
Causes of Losing Multimedia Synchronization 283
9.4 Mechanisms to Achieve Multimedia
Synchronization 286
9.4.1 Measures To
Counter Network Delay Variations 286
9.4.2 Measures To
Counter Media-Specific Processing Skew 289
9.4.3 Measures To
Counter Clock Rate Difference 289
9.4.4 Measures To
Counter Packet Out-of-Order Problems 290
9.4.5 Measures To
Coordinate Multiple Sources for Synchronous
Transmission 291
9.4.6 Workstation and
Server Support for Continuous Media 291
9.4.7 Measures To
Provide User Interaction Synchronization 292
9.4.8 Playout
Techniques To Achieve Optimal Presentation Effects 292
9.5 MPEG Audio and Video Synchronization
292
9.6 Survey of Work on Synchronization
Mechanisms 293
9.6.1 Work at AT&T
Bell Laboratory 293
9.6.2 Work at IBM
European Network Centre 294
9.6.3 Work at
University of California at San Diego 296
9.6.4 Work at
Architecture Projects Management Ltd., U.K. 296
9.6.5 Work at Lancaster
University 297
9.6.6 Work at Bolt
Beranek and Newman Inc., U.S.A. 297
9.6.7 Work at Cambridge
University 297
9.6.8 Work at
University of Ottawa 298
9.6.9 Work at Syracuse
University and Its Continuation 299
9.6.10 Work at
University of California at Berkeley 300
9.6.11 Work at National
University of Singapore 300
9.6.12 Work at
Carnegie-Mellon University 301
9.6.13 Work at
University of New England, Australia 301
9.7 An Ultimate Solution Based on QOS Framework
301
9.8 Summary
303
Problems
303
References
304
Chapter 10 Multimedia Information Indexing and Retrieval
309
10.1 Introduction
309
10.2 Need for Efficient Multimedia Information
Management Systems 310
10.3 Design Issues of Multimedia Information
Systems 311
10.3.1 General
Information Retrieval Model 311
10.3.2 Design Issues
312
10.3.3 Information
Retrieval Performance Measurement 313
10.4 Conventional Information Retrieval
Techniques 315
10.4.1 Differences
Between IR Systems and DBMS 315
10.4.2 Basic IR Models
316
10.4.3 File Structure
317
10.4.4 Term Operations
and Automatic Indexing Process 319
10.4.5 Relevance
Feedback Techniques 321
10.4.6 Summary of
Document Indexing and Retrieval 322
10.5 Audio Indexing and Retrieval
322
10.6 Indexing and Retrieval of Still Images
324
10.6.1 Different
Approaches to Image Retrieval 324
10.6.2 Text-Based Image
Retrieval 324
10.6.3 Image Retrieval
Based on Color 325
10.6.4 Image Retrieval
Based on Shape 330
10.6.4.1 Invariant
Moments 330
10.6.4.2 Histogram of
Significant Edges 332
10.6.4.3 Ordered List
of Interest Points 332
10.6.4.4
Chain-Code-Based Shape Representation and
Similarity Measure 333
10.6.5 Image Retrieval
Based on Texture 343
10.6.6 Integrated Image
Retrieval 344
10.7 Indexing and Retrieval of Video
344
10.7.1 Video Shot
Detection or Segmentation 345
10.7.2 Video Shot
Indexing 346
10.7. 3 Video Retrieval
347
10.8 Remaining Issues
348
10.9 Summary
349
Problems
349
References
353
Chapter 11 Toward Information Superhighways
355
11.1 Introduction
355
11.2 The World Wide Web
356
11.2.1 Basic Concepts
356
11.2.2 Resource
Discovery 359
11.2.3 Desired Features
and Further Development of the WWW 361
11.3 MBone
362
11.3.1 MBone
Architecture 362
11.3.2 Current
Situation 363
11.4 Videoconference Systems
363
11.5 Video-on-demand Systems
364
11.5.1 Networking
Support for VOD 365
11.5.2 Set-Top-Boxes
367
11.5.3 Future
Development 368
11.6 The Information Superhighway
368
11.6.1 Components of
the Information Superhighway 369
11.6.2 Services To Be
Provided by the Information Superhighway 369
11.6.3 Issues in
Developing the Information Superhighway 370
11.7 Summary
371
Problems
371
References
373
Appendix A Packet Formats of ST-II and RTP
375
A.1 ST-II Flow Specification
375
A.2 ST Protocol Data Unit
376
A.3 RTP PDU Format
377
Appendix B Pointers to Software Available on the Internet
379
Appendix C Major Multimedia Research Groups
381
List of Acronyms
383
About the Author
389
Index
391